0000000000893827
AUTHOR
Antonio Capafons
Valencia Model of Waking Hypnosis: Background, Research, and Clinical Applications
The goal of this article is to provide a comprehensive review of the historical background, methods, and clinical applications of the Valencia Model of Waking Hypnosis (VMWH). The active-alert-waking methods have been developed and used since the 19th century as an alternative when the suggestions for relaxation and drowsiness were not helpful for specific cases, or when the person needed to use hypnotic suggestions in situations that required them to be alert and with their eyes open (i.e. in vivo exposure, sports performance, academic work, etc.). In most of these methods, the hypnotized person keeps their eyes open, and the suggestions given are for alertness, focused attention, mind exp…
Emotional Self-Regulation Therapy: A New and Efficacious Treatment for Smoking
Abstract We describe emotional self-regulation therapy, a recently-developed suggestion technique for the treatment of smoking, and present data attesting to its efficacy. Of the 38 individuals who completed treatment, 82% (47% of the initial sample) stopped smoking altogether and 13% (8%of the initial sample) reduced their smoking. A follow-up at 6 months showed that 66% (38% of the initial sample) of those who had completed the treatment remained abstinent and reported minimal withdrawal symptoms or weight gain. In a no-treatment comparison group, only 8% reduced their smoking or became abstinent.
Impact of reading a scientific journal issue about hypnosis on the beliefs and attitudes towards hypnosis among psychologists
The goal of this study was to examine the influence of receiving scientific information about hypnosis over Spanish psychologists" beliefs and attitudes toward hypnosis. The Valencia Scale on Attitudes and Beliefs toward Hypnosis-Therapist (VSABH-T) was administered to 2434 Spanish psychologists. A retest and a second retest were carried out,and between these testing administrations a monograph issue focused on hypnosis was published in a journal that all members of the Spanish Psychological Association received. Results indicated that psychologists who read this monograph, in general terms, changed their misconceptions about hypnosis for correct beliefs and their negative attitudes toward …
The contributions of Ramon y Cajal and other Spanish authors to hypnosis.
The authors review the most important Spanish contributions to hypnosis during the 19th and 20th centuries, with emphasis on the work of Santiago Ramon y Cajal, winner of the 1906 Nobel Prize in medicine. It is widely accepted that he provided a basic foundation for modern neurosciences with his work on neuronal staining and synaptic transmission. What is missing in most accounts of his work is his longstanding interest and work on hypnosis and anomalous phenomena. This article summarizes that lost legacy, discusses other Spanish hypnosis pioneers and gives a brief overview of current hypnosis activities in Spain.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Valencia Scale on Attitudes and Beliefs Toward Hypnosis, Therapist Version
Health professionals' beliefs and attitudes toward hypnosis may make them reluctant to use it or even to foster misapplications and iatrogenic uses of hypnosis. The Valencia Scale on Attitudes and Beliefs toward Hypnosis-Therapist version (VSABH-T) is a specific instrument to evaluate therapists' attitudes and beliefs. The aims of this study are to evaluate the 8-factor structure of the VSABH-T proposed from a confirmatory perspective. The sample comprised 1,661 licensed psychologists who are members of the Spanish Psychological Association for the initial test and 787 for the retest. Results confirmed the 8-factor structure obtained in a previous exploratory study, namely: Fear, Memory, He…
Impact of a lecture abour empirical bases of hypnosis on beliefs and attitudes toward hypnosis among Cuban health professionals.
The aim of this study is to examine whether a lecture on hypnosis can modify attitudes and misconceptions about hypnosis. The sample consisted of 97 health professionals from institutions of Havana City. Group 1 consisted of 46 participants who received a lecture on hypnosis. Group 2 consisted of 51 participants who received a lecture about Urology. The Valencia Scale of Attitudes and Beliefs toward HypnosisTherapist was applied before and after the lecture. Results indicated that there were significant differences between the groups in which Group 1 showed more positive attitudes toward hypnosis. However, both groups showed similar misconceptions about hypnosis and memory, which changed si…
La medida del afrontamiento: revisión crítica de la 'escala de modos de coping' (Ways of coping)
La medida del afrontamiento: revisión crítica de la 'escala de modos de coping' (Ways of coping)
Emotional Self-Regulation Therapy for Smoking Reduction: Description and Initial Empirical Data
Abstract Self-regulation therapy (Amigoo, 1992) is a set of procedures derived from cognitive skill training programs for increasing hypnotizability. First, experiences are generated by actual stimuli. Clients are then asked to associate those experiences with various cues. They are then requested to generate the experiences in response to the cues, but without the actual stimuli. When they are able to do so quickly and easily, therapeutic suggestions are given. Studies of self-regulation therapy indicate that it can be used successfully to treat smoking.
Preference between two methods of active-alert hypnosis: not all techniques are created equal.
Abstract In a cross-over design (N = 80), we compared the differential liking and preference for two hypnotic techniques involving physical activity: Active-alert and waking-alert (or alert-hand) procedures. Participants expressed significantly higher liking and preference for the waking-alert as compared to the active-alert procedure. The latter technique, which also had significantly lower suggestibility scores (Cardena et al., 1998) was also associated with a significantly higher attrition rate (23%). These significant differences may be explained by the greater physical effort and difficulty associated with the active-alert technique. It seems that the waking-alert method extends the ad…
Hypnosis Attitudes: Treatment Effects and Associations With Symptoms in Individuals With Cancer.
Attitudes about hypnosis are associated with hypnotic responsiveness. However, little is known about how hypnosis attitudes change with treatment and if those changes are associated with better outcomes. This study examined whether an intervention based on the Valencia Model of Waking Hypnosis combined with Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy changed attitudes about hypnosis in a sample of patients with a history of cancer. The results indicated that the intervention improved attitudes toward hypnosis, relative to a control intervention, and the improvements remained stable at 3-month follow-up. Analyses also showed that changes in some attitudes were associated with treatment-related improvements…
Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Valencia Scale of Attitudes and Beliefs Toward Hypnosis–client Version in a Portuguese Sample
Research literature about hypnosis highlights the importance of clients' attitudes and beliefs toward hypnosis because they promote hypnotic responses and may predict the effectiveness of hypnotic interventions as well as minimize iatrogenic effects for clients. This study analyzes the factorial structure and psychometric properties with confirmatory methodology of the Valencia Scale of Attitudes and Beliefs Toward Hypnosis-Client Version, using a Portuguese sample. We expected to replicate the results obtained in previous research conducted with samples from various countries. The Portuguese sample comprised 1,977 participants. We found a structure of 8 factors, with an adequate internal c…
Effects of different types of preparatory information on attitudes towards hypnosis.
This paper examines how attitudes of initially reluctant subjects towards hypnosis are influenced by three different approaches to introducing the topic. Participants (N = 90) were assigned to one of three experimental conditions: minimal information, cognitive-behavioural information and trance information. All three groups showed positive changes in attitudes toward hypnosis. Contrary to our expectations, positive attitudinal changes were not diminished for subjects exposed to trance information. Groups given trance and cognitive-behavioural explanations demonstrated significantly greater collaboration compared to the control group. No differences in hypnotic suggestibility were obtained.…
Randomized controlled trial of the Valencia model of waking hypnosis plus CBT for pain, fatigue, and sleep management in patients with cancer and cancer survivors
Background This study evaluated the efficacy of an intervention combining the Valencia model of waking hypnosis with cognitive-behavioral therapy (VMWH-CBT) in managing cancer-related pain, fatigue, and sleep problems in individuals with active cancer or who were post-treatment survivors. We hypothesized that four sessions of VMWH-CBT would result in greater improvement in participants' symptoms than four sessions of an education control intervention. Additionally, we examined the effects on several secondary outcome domains that are associated with increases in these symptoms (depression, pain interference, pain catastrophizing, and cancer treatment distress). Methods The study design was …
Waking Self-Hypnosis Efficacy in Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment for Pathological Gambling:An Effectiveness Clinical Assay
Cognitive-behavioral therapy for pathological gambling has a long-term success rate of more than 50%. This study evaluated the effect of self-hypnosis in cognitive-behavioral treatment of pathological gamblers. Forty-nine participants were assigned to 2 groups. Both groups received a cognitive-behavioral protocol, and Group 1, the no-hypnosis group, received an 11-session intervention and Group 2, the hypnosis group, received 7 sessions that included self-hypnosis. Both groups were equal in gambling chronicity, frequency, intensity, change motivation, and problems derived from gambling. All participants reported significant improvement in gambling behavior and consequences at both treatment…
Creencias y actitudes hacia la hipnosis de los psicólogos españoles
El objetivo de este estudio es analizar las creencias y actitudes hacia la hipnosis de los colegiados para informar al Consejo General de Colegios Oficiales de Psicólogos de las necesidades de formación sobre hipnosis, así como analizar las respuestas en función de los Colegios de los participantes. Para ello se aplicó la Escala de Valencia de Actitudes y Creencias hacia la Hipnosis-Terapeuta a una muestra de 2.434 colegiados españoles. Los resultados indican que los colegiados que respondieron a la escala tienen, en general, creencias ajustadas sobre la hipnosis y una actitud positiva hacia la misma. No se encontraron diferencias entre los distintos COP en cuanto a creencias y actitudes ha…
A computerized version of the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 as an ultra-brief screening tool to detect emotional disorders in primary care
Abstract Background The Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) is an ultra-brief self-report consisting of a 2-item depression scale (PHQ-2) and a 2-item anxiety scale (GAD-2). The aim of the present study is to determine the psychometric properties of a computerized version of the PHQ-4 used to detect emotional disorders (anxiety and depression) in the primary care setting. Method A total of 1052 patients with suspected anxiety, depression, or somatic symptoms were recruited from 28 primary care centres participating in the PsicAP trial and completed the full version of the computerized PHQ. In addition, 178 of these patients also underwent in clinical interviews as a gold standard. Result…
The placebo in the context of scientific theories
Placebo is not a unitary concept. It can have different meanings, depending on the scientific discipline in which it is used. The placebo exists in psychology, medicine, and other sciences, and in each case it is assumed that the results obtained by the placebo are unexplainable. But the results that can’t be explained by a scientific discipline could be explained by another. For example, a sugar pill used in the treatment of pain could be a pharmacological placebo, but it isn’t a psychological placebo, because there is an explanation of its effects based in psychological principles. In this work, a conceptual analysis of placebo in the context of scientific theories is presented.
Waking hypnosis for waking people: why from Valencia?
This article presents a cultural analysis of the reasons that waking hypnosis is widely accepted in Spain. These reasons relate to several features of the Spanish people, including their attitude towards others, politics, religion, habits and even the climate in which they live. In general, Spaniards seem to perceive ‘waking’ hypnosis as a technique that better adapts to their lifestyle than more traditional forms of hypnosis. In addition, they may be able to have more confidence in ‘waking’ hypnosis as it appears less threatening, since it is differentiated from stage hypnosis as presented by the media. Therefore, although ‘waking’ hypnosis is American in origin, the particular reasons why…
Impact of a Lecture About Empirical Bases of Hypnosis on Beliefs and Attitudes Toward Hypnosis Among Cuban Health Professionals
Abstract The aim of this study was to examine whether a lecture on hypnosis can modify attitudes and misconceptions about hypnosis. The sample consisted of 97 health professionals from institutions in Havana City, Cuba. Group 1 consisted of 46 participants who received a lecture on hypnosis. Group 2 consisted of 51 participants who received a lecture about urology. and Beliefs toward Hypnosis–Therapist was applied before and after the lecture. Results indicated that there were significant differences between the groups: Group 1 showed more positive attitudes toward hypnosis. However, both groups showed similar misconceptions about hypnosis and memory, which changed significantly in Group 1 …
Pediatric Psycho-Oncology
La psicooncología pediátrica, entre otras, estudia por qué el cáncer, además de ser una enfermedad crónica que amenaza la vida de quien la padece, es una enfermedad que simboliza el sufrimiento de la persona enferma y su familia. El tratamiento del cáncer infantil implica un régimen médico exigente en el que los niños y sus familias se enfrentan a múltiples factores estresantes, que provocan cambios considerables en las actividades diarias; por ejemplo, alteración de los roles familiares y sociales, temor a la adhesión al tratamiento y una constante amenaza de muerte. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo mostrar, por medio de una revisión teórica, el papel de la psicooncología pediátrica…
Pediatric Psycho-Oncology
La psicooncología pediátrica, entre otras, estudia por qué el cáncer, además de ser una enfermedad crónica que amenaza la vida de quien la padece, es una enfermedad que simboliza el sufrimiento de la persona enferma y su familia. El tratamiento del cáncer infantil implica un régimen médico exigente en el que los niños y sus familias se enfrentan a múltiples factores estresantes, que provocan cambios considerables en las actividades diarias; por ejemplo, alteración de los roles familiares y sociales, temor a la adhesión al tratamiento y una constante amenaza de muerte. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo mostrar, por medio de una revisión teórica, el papel de la psicooncología pediátrica…
Papeles del psicólogo
Antonio Capafons Bonet (Antonio.Capafons@uv.es) El Modelo de Valencia de Hipnosis Despierta presenta varias características innovadoras que permiten un uso eficiente e integrador de la hipnosis: la forma de presentarla al cliente evita un lenguaje tranceático o palabras “patologiformes”, mostrándola como una estrategia general de afrontamiento y de auto-control, que usa las propiedades auto-regulatorias del cerebro. El paciente hipnotizado está con los ojos abiertos y conversando fluidamente. Esta perspectiva es más permisiva con el cliente y le responsabiliza más sobre su papel en el tratamiento que las perspectivas clásicas de hipnosis despierta. Además, trata de integrar distintas formas…
Confirmatory factor analysis of the Valencia Scale on Attitudes and Beliefs Toward Hypnosis: an international study.
Health professionals" beliefs and attitudes toward hypnosis may make them reluctant to use it or even to foster misapplications and iatrogenic uses of hypnosis. The Valencia Scale on Attitudes and Beliefs toward Hypnosis-Therapist version (VSABH-T) is a specific instrument to evaluate therapists" attitudes and beliefs. The aims of this study are to evaluate the 8-factor structure of the VSABH-T proposed from a confirmatory perspective. The sample comprised 1,661 licensed psychologists who are members of the Spanish Psychological Association for the initial test and 787 for the retest. Results confirmed the 8-factor structure obtained in a previous exploratory study, namely: Fear, Memory, He…
Effects of different types of preparatory information on attitudes toward hypnosis
This paper examines how attitudes of initially reluctant subjects towards hypnosis are influenced by three different approaches to introducing the topic. Participants (N = 90) were assigned to one of three experimental conditions: minimal information, cognitive-behavioural information and trance information. All three groups showed positive changes in attitudes toward hypnosis. Contrary to our expectations, positive attitudinal changes were not diminished for subjects exposed to trance information. Groups given trance and cognitive-behavioural explanations demonstrated significantly greater collaboration compared to the control group. No differences in hypnotic suggestibility were obtained.…
Análisis factorial confirmatorio de la escala Valencia de actitudes y creencias hacia la hipnosis (versión cliente revisada), en una muestra española
Diversas aproximaciones a la hipnosis han destacado la relevancia de las actitudes y creencias sobre ella para la promoción de las respuestas hipnóticas, para predecir la eficacia de las intervenciones que incluyen a la hipnosis, y para evitar iatrogenia en los usuarios que la reciben. El objetivo de este trabajo es investigar la nueva variación en castellano de La Escala de Valencia de Actitudes y Creencias hacia la Hipnosis versión Cliente. Se ha analizado su estructura factorial y propiedades psicométricas con metodología confirmatoria, usando una muestra exclusivamente española, para observar si se confirman los resultados de anteriores investigaciones exploratorias y confirmatorias rea…
Creencias que pueden impedir que la hipnosis sea una técnica útil para la salud: un estudio exploratorio con muestra cubana.
Los avances en la investigación sobre la hipnosis clínica permiten tener información sobre las áreas de eficacia de esta técnica coadyuvante a tratamientos médicos y psicológicos. La investigación empírica revela, así mismo, que la iatrogenia que puede asociarse a la hipnosis no se genera por una cualidad intrínseca de ella, si no por un mal uso por parte del terapeuta y por las creencias erróneas que se mantienen sobre ella. Especialmente destacan las creencias de la hipnosis como la maquina de la verdad o como forma de acceso a información reprimida/disociada en el inconsciente, ya que favorecen el desarrollo de falsos recuerdos. Nuestro estudio muestra que en Cuba la hipnosis es una técn…
Factorial analysis and psychometric properties of the revised Valencia scale of attitudes and beliefs towards hypnosis-client version
Psychometric properties and factorial structure of the Revised Valencia Scale of Attitudes and Beliefs toward Hypnosis – Client Version using a Portuguese sample are presented. Exploratory factor analysis on a Portuguese population of undergraduate college students (N = 444) yielded 8 factors: ‘Interest/Liking’, ‘Memory/Magic’, ‘Help’, ‘Control’, ‘Cooperation’, ‘Marginal’, ‘Fear’ and ‘Automaton’. The overall 8-factor structure is similar to the one found in the therapist version of the scale, and as in the therapist version, each factor of the client version showed good internal consistency and reliability. Differences among participants that had and had not experienced hypnosis previously …
Attitudes Toward Hypnosis Based on Source of Information and Experience With Hypnosis.
Attitudes and beliefs toward hypnosis are relevant in promoting hypnotic responses, in predicting the efficacy of interventions that include hypnosis, and in reducing iatrogenic effects in hypnotized individuals. The goal of the present study is to test the impact of previous knowledge about hypnosis and past experiences being hypnotized on attitudes and beliefs about hypnosis. A sample of 1,977 Portuguese students participated in the study; they responded to the Valencia Scale of Attitudes and Beliefs Toward Hypnosis-Client Version (VSABH-C) on two different occasions (test-retest method). Significant differences were found (
Confirmatory factor analysis of the Valencia scale on attitudes and beliefs toward hypnosis, therapist version
Health professionals' beliefs and attitudes toward hypnosis may make them reluctant to use it or even to foster misapplications and iatrogenic uses of hypnosis. The Valencia Scale on Attitudes and Beliefs toward Hypnosis-Therapist version (VSABH-T) is a specific instrument to evaluate therapists' attitudes and beliefs. The aims of this study are to evaluate the 8-factor structure of the VSABH-T proposed from a confirmatory perspective. The sample comprised 1,661 licensed psychologists who are members of the Spanish Psychological Association for the initial test and 787 for the retest. Results confirmed the 8-factor structure obtained in a previous exploratory study, namely: Fear, Memory, He…
Rapid Self-Hypnosis: A New Self-Hypnosis Method and Its Comparison with the Hypnotic Induction Profile (HIP)
Despite its clinical importance, there are few systematic studies on the application of self-hypnosis. Rapid Self-Hypnosis (RSH) was created to provide a new procedure that is easy, comfortable, fosters alertness, and can be done covertly in everyday life. We present it as an alternative to the self-hypnosis version of the Hypnosis Induction Profile (HIP). Using a crossover design, we found in an experimental session that the RSH and the HIP produced comparable objective and subjective scores in the Barber Suggestibility Scale (BSS). However, as compared with the HIP, participants rated RSH as significantly more coherent, pleasant, faster and easier to learn, more likely to be used in every…
Análisis factorial exploratorio y propiedades psicométricas del cuestionario de creencias y actitudes hacia la hipnosis-cliente.
as actitudes inadecuadas y las creencias erróneas hacia la hipnosis influyen en las respuestas a las sugestiones hipnóticas. Especialmente afectan al resultado que se obtiene en intervenciones que adjunten hipnosis. La escala evalúa las creencias erróneas más frecuentes hacia la hipnosis y las actitudes negativas derivadas de ellas. Los análisis factoriales exploratorios (N= 761), han generado seis factores: autómata, ayuda, control personal, interés, solución mágica y colaboración. La consistencia interna de las subescalas es aceptable, debiendo mejorarse el coeficiente test-retest (un mes de lapso; N= 116) de alguna de ellas, especialmente de solución mágica y colaboración. Los factores r…
Análisis factorial exploratorio y propiedades psicométricas de la Escala de Valencia de Actitudes y Creencias hacia la Hipnosis, versión terapeuta
La escasa competencia parental está relacionada con el desarrollo de un patrón de conducta desadaptativo en los/as hijos/as, con las consecuencias que este hecho conlleva. Sin embargo, prácticamente no existen pruebas que midan este constructo. La Escala de Competencia Parental Percibida (versión para padres/madres)(ECPP-p) está constituida por 22 items, que se estructuran en cinco factores. La ECPP presenta unas propiedades psicométricas altamente aceptables
Grounding Hypnosis in Science: The "New" APA Division 30 Definition of Hypnosis as a Step Backward.
Every decade or so, the Division 30 of the American Psychological Association (APA) has seen fit to redefine hypnosis (Elkins, Barabasz, Council, & Spiegel, 2015; Green, Barabasz, Barrett, & Montgo...
Clinical applications of ‘waking’ hypnosis from a cognitive-behavioural perspective: from efficacy to efficiency
This article reviews several essential components for use in the practice of hypnosis from a cognitive-behavioural perspective. These include a cognitive-behavioural introduction, which presents hypnosis to the client as a voluntary, self-controlled process. Then, a set of practical tasks is presented for assessing suggestibility as well as collaboration and attitudes toward hypnosis. The author provides a description of rapid self-hypnosis and instruction as to its implementation, and advocates the use of metaphors designed to facilitate a client's understanding of hypnosis. The article then introduces ‘waking’ hypnosis as an efficient, adaptable, and pleasurable alternative to other forms…
Change of attitudes toward hypnosis: Effects of cognitive-behavioural and trance explanations in a setting of hetero-hypnosis.
This paper deals with the effects on attitudes toward hypnosis when it is introduced in three different ways to people who explicitly indicated that they did not want to be hypnotised. One hundred and ten participants (university students) were assigned to three experimental conditions, namely: minimum information control group, trance group, and cognitive-behavioural group. After hypnosis was introduced, those participants who agreed to continue were hypnotised and their suggestibility levels were assessed. The results revealed that trance explanation produces an attitudinal change, since a very high percentage of participants dropped out of the study. Cognitive-behavioural explanation dec…
Confirmatory factor analysis of the valencia scale of attitudes and beliefs toward hypnosis (revised client version), with a spanish sample
Diversas aproximaciones a la hipnosis han destacado la relevancia de las actitudes y creencias sobre ella para la promoción de las respuestas hipnóticas, para predecir la eficacia de las intervenciones que incluyen a la hipnosis, y para evitar iatrogenia en los usuarios que la reciben. El objetivo de este trabajo es investigar la nueva variación en castellano de La Escala de Valencia de Actitudes y Creencias hacia la Hipnosis versión Cliente. Se ha analizado su estructura factorial y propiedades psicométricas con metodología confirmatoria, usando una muestra exclusivamente española, para observar si se confirman los resultados de anteriores investigaciones exploratorias y confirmatorias rea…
Grounding Hypnosis in Science: The 'New' APA Division 30 definition of hypnosis as a step backwards.
Every decade or so, the Division 30 of the American Psychological Association (APA) has seen fit to redefine hypnosis (Elkins, Barabasz, Council, & Spiegel, 2015; Green, Barabasz, Barrett, & Montgomery, 2005; Kirsch, 1994). In the latest attempt, the Hypnosis Definition Committee (HDC) defined hypnosis as a 'state of consciousness involving focused attention and reduced peripheral awareness characterized by an enhanced capacity for response to suggestion' (Elkins et al., 2015, p. 6). One might justifiably wonder whether important discoveries or scientific breakthroughs or novel theoretical insights motivated the impetus to update the previous definition. In fact, the recently adopted defini…
Attitudes and beliefs about hypnosis: A multicultural study
The aim of this study is to examine the effects of having personal experience and information about hypnosis over the beliefs and attitudes toward hypnosis, using a sample of students from Spain, United States, Portugal and Romania. The factor structure of the Revised Valencia Scale of Attitudes and Beliefs toward Hypnosis-Client Version, as well as its psychometric properties are also analyzed. An exploratory factor analysis of the scale was conducted and an 8-factor model solution similar to the one found in other versions of this scale was obtained: Help, Personal Control, Magical Solution, Interest, Collaboration, Fear, Memory/Trance and Marginal. Results also indicated that participant…
Attitudes About Hypnosis: Factor Analyzing the VSABTH-C With an American Sample
In the present study, the authors factor-analyzed responses from 1,141 American undergraduate students to the Valencia Scale of Attitudes and Beliefs Toward Hypnosis-Client Version. They obtained an 8-factor solution accounting for 66% of the total variance in responses. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated acceptable fit of their model and those reported earlier by Carvalho et al. (2007) and Capafons, Mendoza, et al. (2008) using Portuguese and international samples, respectively. Unlike previous factor analyses of the scale, the authors obtained an independent clusters solution. Distinctions between the authors' model and those reported previously are discussed.