Toll-like receptors in neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and alcohol-induced brain damage

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) or pattern recognition receptors respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or internal damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). TLRs are integral membrane proteins with both extracellular leucine-rich and cytoplasmic domains that initiate downstream signaling through kinases by activating transcription factors like AP-1 and NF-κB, which lead to the release of various inflammatory cytokines and immune modulators. In the central nervous system, different TLRs are expressed mainly in microglia and astroglial cells, although some TLRs are also expressed in oligodendroglia and neurons. Activation of TLRs triggers signaling cascades by the host as a…